PALESTINIAN GENOCIDE AND SECONDARY TRAUMATIC STRESS AMONG PAKISTANI MOTHERS: A QUALITATIVE STUDY
Keywords:
Palestinian Genocide, Secondary Traumatic Stress, Pakistan, Mothers, Qualitative Studies.Abstract
The ongoing conflict in Palestine has reverberated across the globe, manifesting not only in political discourse but also in the psychological well-being of distant observers. This qualitative study delves into the secondary traumatic stress (STS) experienced by Pakistani mothers as they consume media reports and narratives of the Palestinian situation. Secondary traumatic stress, a condition often shadowing those indirectly exposed to trauma through close contact with survivors or through extended exposure to traumatic narratives, emerges as a significant concern for mental health professionals. By focusing on a specific demographic—Pakistani mothers—this research aims to uncover the nuanced psychological impacts of distant conflicts on individuals with no direct connection to the events, other than through ethnic, religious, or humanitarian concern. The research explored mothers’ experiences and insights of secondary traumatic stress in context of Palestinian on-going war/violence. The study's participants comprise a diverse group of nine Pakistani mothers, varying in age, socioeconomic status (SES), education level, profession, marital status, number of children, and family structure. This demographic diversity provides a broad lens through which the phenomenon of STS can be examined, offering insights into how various factors might influence psychological responses to distant traumas. The insights were collected through semi-structured interviews looking into the psychological, emotional and behavioral perspectives. The study investigated how the secondary traumatic stress caused by the disturbing war-stricken Palestinian images and video clips which are found everywhere on media. Findings clearly indicated the fear, stress, uncertainty, anxiety and concern for family expressed by the mothers. Mostly the participants (mothers) expressed that due to the current situation they made efforts for a stronger and closer bonding with their children and family. They emphasized the importance of freedom and peace in their home country and extend their gratitude toward the Almighty Allah. The findings would help to make people literate of secondary trauma and suggest healthier ways to cope it.
References
Ahsan, A., Nadeem, A., Habib, A., Basaria, A. A. A., Tariq, R., & Raufi, N. (2023). Post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth: a neglected cause. Frontiers in Global Women's Health, 4.
Altawil, M. A., El-Asam, A., & Khadaroo, A. (2023). Impact of chronic war trauma exposure on PTSD diagnosis from 2006-2021: a longitudinal study in Palestine. Middle East Current Psychiatry, 30(1), 14.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2018). Media violence and the general aggression model. Journal of Social Issues, 74(2), 386-413.
Armes, S. E., Lee, J. J., Bride, B. E., & Seponski, D. M. (2020). Secondary trauma and impairment in clinical social workers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 110, 104540.
Asi. M. Y., (2023). ‘Young Palestinians’ Aspirations for the Future.’ Arab Center Washington DC. Published on May 15, 2023. Retrieved on March 22, 2024. https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/young-palestinians-aspirations-for-the-future/
Ayer, Lynsay & Venkatesh, Brinda & Stewart, Robert & Mandel, Daniel & Stein, Bradley & Schoenbaum, Michael. (2015). Psychological Aspects of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Systematic Review. Trauma, violence & abuse. 18. 10.1177/1524838015613774.
Bailey, J. (2008). First steps in qualitative data analysis: transcribing. Family practice, 25(2), 127-131.
Barker, M., & Petley, J. (2002). Ill effects: The media violence debate. Routledge.
Bergelson, I., Tracy, C., & Takacs, E. (2022). Best practices for reducing bias in the interview process. Current urology reports, 23(11), 319-325.
Boddy, C. R. (2016). Sample size for qualitative research. Qualitative market research: An international journal, 19(4), 426-432.
Bourke, M. L., & Craun, S. W. (2014). Secondary traumatic stress among internet crimes against children task force personnel: Impact, risk factors, and coping strategies. Sexual Abuse, 26(6), 586-609.
Brader, C. (2023). ‘Israel-Palestine conflict: Recent development and statements.’ In Focus published on Thursday, 02 March 2023. https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/israel-palestine-conflict-recent-developments-and-statements/
Bryman, A., & Burgess, R. G. (2002). Reflections on qualitative data analysis. In Analyzing qualitative data (pp. 216-226). Routledge.
Bryman, A., Becker, S., & Sempik, J. (2008). Quality criteria for quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research: A view from social policy. International journal of social research methodology, 11(4), 261-276.
Canfield, Julie. (2005). Secondary Traumatization, Burnout, and Vicarious Traumatization. Smith College Studies in Social Work - SMITH COLL STUD SOC WORK. 75. 81-101. 10.1300/J497v75n02_06.
Cantor, J., & Wilson, B. J. (2003). Media and violence: Intervention strategies for reducing aggression. Media Psychology, 5(4), 363-403.
Carminati, L. (2018). Generalizability in qualitative research: A tale of two traditions. Qualitative health research, 28(13), 2094-2101.
Center for Preventive Action, Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, March 13th 2024, retrieved on March 20th 2024. https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/israeli-palestinian-conflict
Chaudhry, N., Farooque, S., Kiran, T., Eylem-van Bergeijk, O., Chaudhry, I. B., Memon, R., & Husain, N. (2022). Building Resilience Against ViolencE (BRAVE): protocol of a parenting intervention for mothers and fathers with post-traumatic stress disorder in Pakistan. Global Mental Health, 9, 115-122.
Chenail, R. J. (2011). Interviewing the investigator: Strategies for addressing instrumentation and researcher bias concerns in qualitative research. Qualitative report, 16(1), 255-262.
Cossío-Silva, F. J., Revilla-Camacho, M. Á., Palacios-Florencio, B., & Benítez, D. G. (2019). How to face a political boycott: the relevance of entrepreneurs’ awareness. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 15, 321-339.
Diamond, L. M., Fagundes, C. P., & Butterworth, M. R. (2012). Attachment style, vagal tone, and empathy during mother–adolescent interactions. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 165-184.
Dubow, E. F., Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., Landau, S., Dvir, S., Shikaki, K., & Ginges, J. (2012). Cumulative effects of exposure to violence on posttraumatic stress in Palestinian and Israeli youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 41(6), 837-844.
Fassin, D. (2008). The humanitarian politics of testimony: Subjectification through trauma in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Cultural Anthropology, 23(3), 531-558.
Feinstein, A., Audet, B., & Waknine, E. (2014). Witnessing images of extreme violence: a psychological study of journalists in the newsroom. JRSM open, 5(8), 2054270414533323.
Flacking, R., Ewald, U., Nyqvist, K. H., & Starrin, B. (2006). Trustful bonds: a key to “becoming a mother” and to reciprocal breastfeeding. Stories of mothers of very preterm infants at a neonatal unit. Social science & medicine, 62(1), 70-80.
Fuchs, A., Möhler, E., Resch, F., & Kaess, M. (2015). Impact of a maternal history of childhood abuse on the development of mother–infant interaction during the first year of life. Child abuse & neglect, 48, 179-189.
Giller, E. (1999). What is psychological trauma? Sidran Institute, 15, 2021.
Graue, C. (2015). Qualitative data analysis. International Journal of Sales, Retailing & Marketing, 4(9), 5-14.
Harb A., Siddiqui U., & Osgood B., (2024) ‘Israel’s war on Gaza updates: 40 dead in Israeli strikes on central Gaza’ Al-Jazeera published on 22nd Feb 2024 retrieved on 21st March 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/2/22/israels-war-on-gaza-live-gaza-has-become-a-death-zone-says-who-chief
Hasan, M., M., (2024). The World in the Eye of Palestinian Children. The Daily Star. Published on February 28, 2024. Retrieved on March 22, 2024. https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/news/the-world-the-eyes-palestinian-children-3553956
Holman, E. A., Garfin, D. R., Lubens, P., & Silver, R. C. (2020). Media exposure to collective trauma, mental health, and functioning: does it matter what you see?. Clinical Psychological Science, 8(1), 111-124.
Hopwood, T. L., Schutte, N. S., & Loi, N. M. (2019). Stress responses to secondary trauma: Compassion fatigue and anticipatory traumatic reaction among youth workers. The Social Science Journal, 56(3), 337-348.
Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: Scientific theory and research. Journal of Adolescent health, 41(6), S6-S13.
Ikram, N., Frost, A., LeMasters, K., Hagaman, A., Baranov, V., Gallis, J. & Maselko, J. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences and implications of perceived stress, anxiety and cortisol among women in Pakistan: A cross-sectional study. BMJ open, 12(4), e052280.
Kennedy, M. S. (2022). An Exploratory Study of the Effects of Secondary Traumatic Stress through YouTube Viewing and Recommendations to Mitigate the Effects. Wilmington University (Delaware).
Khan, Umer S. 2020. Gender-Based Violence in Pakistan - a Critical Analysis. Master's thesis, Harvard Extension School.
Kikuchi, Y., & Noriuchi, M. (2015). The neuroscience of maternal love. Neuroscience Communications, 1, e991.
Kirmayer, L. J., Kienzler, H., Hamid Afana, A., & Pedersen, D. (2010). Trauma and disasters in social and cultural context. Principles of social psychiatry, 155-177.
Kluczniok, D., Boedeker, K., Fuchs, A., Hindi Attar, C., Fydrich, T., Fuehrer, D. & Bermpohl, F. (2016). Emotional availability in mother–child interaction: The effects of maternal depression in remission and additional history of childhood abuse. Depression and anxiety, 33(7), 648-657.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Measuring the reliability of qualitative text analysis data. Quality and quantity, 38, 787-800.
Lacey, A., & Luff, D. (2001). Qualitative data analysis (pp. 320-357). UK: Trent Focus Group.
Lawson, H. A., Caringi, J. C., Gottfried, R., Bride, B. E., & Hydon, S. P. (2019). Educators' secondary traumatic stress, children's trauma, and the need for trauma literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 89(3), 421-447.
Leahy, C. P. (2023). Mother love: Mothers and their children. In Becoming a mother (pp. 116-146). Manchester University Press.
Löffler, C. S., & Greitemeyer, T. (2023). Are women the more empathetic gender? The effects of gender role expectations. Current Psychology, 42(1), 220-231.
Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. (2003). Childhood experiences of trauma and loss have different relations to maternal unresolved and hostile-helpless states of mind on the AAI. Attachment & human development, 5(4), 330-352.
Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. (2003). Childhood experiences of trauma and loss have different relations to maternal unresolved and hostile-helpless states of mind on the AAI. Attachment & human development, 5(4), 330-352.
Mandelli, L., Petrelli, C., & Serretti, A. (2015). The role of specific early trauma in adult depression: A meta-analysis of published literature. Childhood trauma and adult depression. European psychiatry, 30(6), 665-680.
Mertens, D. M. (2018). Ethics of qualitative data collection. The SAGE handbook of qualitative data collection, 33-48.
Monk, C., Leight, K. L., & Fang, Y. (2008). The relationship between women’s attachment style and perinatal mood disturbance: implications for screening and treatment. Archives of women's mental health, 11, 117-129.
Mwita, K. (2022). Factors influencing data saturation in qualitative studies. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478), 11(4), 414-420.
Neria, Y., & Sullivan, G. M. (2011). Understanding the mental health effects of indirect exposure to mass trauma through the media. Jama, 306(12), 1374-1375.
Noble, H., & Smith, J. (2015). Issues of validity and reliability in qualitative research. Evidence-based nursing, 18(2), 34-35.
Pang, C., Li, W., Zhou, Y., Gao, T., & Han, S. (2023). Are women more empathetic than men? Questionnaire and EEG estimations of sex/gender differences in empathic ability. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 18(1), nsad008.
Pinchevski, A. (2016). Screen trauma: Visual media and post-traumatic stress disorder. Theory, Culture & Society, 33(4), 51-75.
Raiff, E. M., D’Antonio, K. M., Mai, C., & Monk, C. (2022). Mental health in obstetric patients and providers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical obstetrics and gynecology, 65(1), 203-215.
Reuveny, R. (2003), Fundamentalist colonialism: the geopolitics of Israeli–Palestinian conflict, Political Geography, 22(4), 347-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-6298(02)00114-2.
Ronzani, P., Stojetz, W., Stammel, N., Boettche, M., Zardetto, D., Fenzl, S. & Brück, T. (2024). Prevalence of Depression and Associated Socio-economic Outcomes during Violent Conflict: A Matched Analysis for Palestine Using Nationally Representative Survey and Conflict Event Data. medRxiv, 2024-02.
Routledge blog article October 24, 2022, retrieved on 22nd March 2024. ‘Understanding Secondary Trauma for Mental Health Professionals.’ https://www.routledge.com/blog/article/understanding-secondary-trauma-for-mental-health-professionals
Sarantakos, S. (1998). Sampling procedures. In Social research (pp. 139-164). Palgrave, London.
Sarfraz, M., (2023). Amid the crisis in Gaza, people are calling for boycotting ‘Israeli’ goods, But do they work? Published on November 27, 2023, Retrieved on 22nd March 2024. https://www.dawn.com/news/1789573
Shahin, A., (2023) ‘Dreams shattered: A bleak future awaits Gaza’s children.’ Islamic Relief Worlwide published on November 29, 2023. retrieved on 22nd March 2024. https://islamic-relief.org/news/dreams-shattered-a-bleak-future-awaits-gazas-children/
Smith, S. L., & Donnerstein, E. (1998). Harmful effects of exposure to media violence: Learning of aggression, emotional desensitization, and fear. In Human aggression (pp. 167-202). Academic Press.
Takševa, T. (2017). Mother love, maternal ambivalence, and the possibility of empowered mothering. Hypatia, 32(1), 152-168.
Tanvir, H., M., (2023) ‘To Boycott or Not to Boycott: A Pakistani Dilemma’ Current Affairs, International Relations (December 23, 2023, Retrieved on 22nd March 2023). https://www.paradigmshift.com.pk/israeli-boycott/
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network, ‘Secondary Traumatic Stress’ https://www.nctsn.org/trauma-informed-care/secondary-traumatic-stress. Retrieved on 21st March 2024.
Tosun, L. P., Öztürk, A., & Özdemir, G. (2020). Mother to mother: Mothers’ social comparison-based emotions on social networking sites. Europe's journal of psychology, 16(4), 602.
Van der Kolk, B. A. (2003). Psychological trauma. American Psychiatric Pub.
Wazana, A., Székely, E., & Oberlander, T. F. (Eds.). (2021). Prenatal stress and child development. Springer International Publishing.
Yazdani, A., Zadeh, Z. F., & Shafi, K. (2016). Potentially Traumatic Events as Predictors of Vicarious Trauma in Adolescents. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 31(2).
Zaki, M. M. (2011). The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. In American Global Challenges: The Obama Era (pp. 99-114). New York: Palgrave Macmillan US.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 PAKISTAN ISLAMICUS (An International Journal of Islamic & Social Sciences)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
